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Long before the arrival of Christopher Columbus and before the incursions of the Spanish explorers and conquistadores in the 15th and 16th centuries, the Americas were home for thousands of years to a variety of civilizations and empires. As the understanding of agriculture improved and larger populations could be supported, small settlements grew into vast urban centres ruled by an aristocracy that was looked to among other things for propitiation of the gods. These civilizations waxed and waned (producing calendars and a writing system as well as huge building complexes) according to a natural order until the Spanish conquest. The resultant colonization wrought many changes, notably an overlay of the Spanish language, now the official language of most countries lying south of the United States. But less obviously, it brought cross-fertilization, a unique blending of local cultures with that of remote Spain and later of Africa as well, a melding that resulted in a distinctively Latin American style that was apparent in everything from art, dance, music, and literature to leadership. holiday in wales

We invite you to explore the people, places, events, and traditions that have shaped and continue to shape the vibrant Hispanic culture that thrives today in South, Central, and North America: people such as the gifted writer and Nobelist Octavio Paz, the talented dancer and choreographer Alicia Alonso, the celebrated liberator Sim n Bol var, the notorious dictator Augusto Pinochet, and the brilliant business leader Roberto Crispulo Goizueta; the various countries of Latin America; historical events such as the Mexican War (1846 48) and the Battle of Ayacucho (1824); and cultural celebrations such as Cinco de Mayo and the Day of the Dead. holiday wales

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Encyclop dia Britannica is proud to present a new feature on one of history s darkest chapters, the Holocaust. Central to this feature is an overview article by Britannica s Holocaust adviser, Dr. Michael Berenbaum, the former director of the Holocaust Research Institute at the U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum, former president of the Survivors of the Shoah Visual History Foundation, and author of The World Must Know and Witness to the Holocaust, among other books. This feature is divided into five parts, covering everything from the origins of the Holocaust in the mind of Adolf Hitler to the legacy of the horror in art and memory. Long-debated controversies are discussed, such as why the Allies chose not to bomb Hitler s death camps, as well as the actions of the Roman Catholic Church, and of Pope Pius XII in particular, during the years of the Holocaust. There are also extensive photographs and videos (warning: some of them are graphic), an extended bibliography, and discussion questions tied to each of the five parts and written especially for teachers and classroom use. Photos cottage holiday in wales

Britannica.com gathers the opinions of world leaders and thinkers on current social issues from human rights to theories on peace and nonviolence. books of hope forum current social issues book of hope human rights book of hopes women s movement dalai lama social philosophy political corruption peace queen noor landmine ban nelson mandela apartheid books of hope forum current social issues book of hope human rights book of hopes women s equality dalai lama social philosophy political corruption queen noor landmine ban disarmament nelson mandela apartheid mary robinson peace convention on the rights of the child jedediah purdy michael debakey twyla tharp cardinal etchegaray current social issues architecture frank gehry joseph rotblat peter eigen social philosophy betty friedan muhammad yunus micocredit grameen bank world visions norman borlaug current social issues william drayton world vision central america landmine ban michael debakey political corruption twyla tharp frank gehry joseph rotblat mary robinson new millennium cardinal etchegaray betty friedan william drayton jedediah purdy norman borlaug muhammad yunus nuruddin farah convention on the rights of the child new millennium world visions oscar arias sanchez

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• Camp, Walter Photograph Walter Camp.
• football, gridiron: NCAA playing field Art Football field according to NCAA specifications. Professional field varies slightly.
• football, gridiron: offensive and defensive formations Art Offensive and defensive formations.
• Rockne, Knute

Photograph Knute Rockne.

• Super Bowl: halftime festivities at Super Bowl XXX, 1996

  Photograph Balloons being released during the halftime festivities at Super Bowl XXX in Tempe, Ariz., Jan. camping holiday wales

• Super Bowl: Starr in Super Bowl I, 1967

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• 3C 265 Photograph Three radio galaxies.
• blue dwarf galaxy Photograph Various galactic types.
• galaxy: irregular galaxies Photograph Four irregular galaxies, as observed by the Hubble Space Telescope.
• galaxy: quasar host galaxies Photograph Six quasar host galaxies, as observed by the Hubble Space Telescope.
• galaxy: Whirlpool Galaxy

Photograph The Whirlpool Galaxy (left), also known as M51, an Sc galaxy accompanied by a small, irregular holiday wales walking

• Hubble classification Art Hubble s system of classification for galaxies.
• Hubble Space Telescope: quasar with companion galaxy Photograph Quasar and its companion galaxy colliding, as observed by the Hubble Space Telescope.

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• Andromeda Galaxy Photograph M31, Andromeda Galaxy

Video Images from the Hubble Space Telescope are teaching us some surprising things about the universe.

• work of the Herschels

  Video Using their powerful telescopes, the Herschels discovered thousands of stars and named our galaxy family holiday wales

Images from the article Gandhi, Indira

• Gandhi, Indira Photograph Indira Gandhi campaigning for the premiership of India, spring 1971.
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• PHOTOGRAPHS Photograph Indira Gandhi.

landlocked, multiethnic country located in the heart of south-central Asia. Lying along important trade routes connecting southern and eastern Asia to Europe and the Middle East, Afghanistan has long been a prize sought by empire builders, and for millennia great armies have attempted to subdue it, leaving traces of their efforts in great monuments now fallen to ruin. The country s forbidding landscape of deserts and mountains has laid many imperial ambitions to rest, as has the tireless resistance of its fiercely independent peoples #151;so independent that the country has failed to coalesce into a nation but has instead long endured as a patchwork of contending ethnic factions and ever-shifting alliances. Maps and Flags, Statistical Information, Images, Recent Events for Afghanistan, Main Article about Afghanistan, Other Articles that discuss Afghanistan, Web Search Britannica Online Dictionary Thesaurus Browse:

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Afghanistan Main Article Afghanistan

Official name: Islamic Republic of Afghanistan (Jomhuri-ye Eslami-ye Afghanestan [Dari]); Da Afghanestan Eslami Jamhuriyat (Pashto)¹ adventure holiday wales

Form of government: Islamic republic¹ with two legislative bodies (House of Elders [102]; House of the People [249]) Head of state and government: President Capital: Kabul Official languages: Dari; Pashto² Official religion: Islam Monetary unit: (new) afghani (Af) Population estimate: (2007) 27, 145, 000 Total area (sq mi): 249, 347 Total area (sq km): 645, 807 (1) From promulgation of new constitution on Jan. 26, 2004. holiday park south wales

(2) Six additional locally official languages per the 2004 constitution are Uzbek, Turkmen, Balochi, Kafiri (Nuristani), Pashai, and Pamiri. Download the PDF fact sheet Recent Events for Afghanistan 2007 2006 2005 2004 2003 2002 2001 2000 cottage holiday wales

1999 1998 1997 1996 1995 1994 1993 In 2006, five years after the overthrow of the Taliban, the government of Pres. Hamid Karzai remained dependent upon international military assistance to face the threat of growing armed resistance. With no fighting force at his own command, Karzai was compelled to seek support from ethnic and provincial leaders supported by militias with little loyalty to a central government. A U.S.-trained Afghan National Army undertook its first serious engagement in the 2006 summer offensive, but its reliability remained uncertain. holiday in wales

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• Central Asian arts

  (in Central Asian arts : Afghanistan and the sedentary population of Turkistan ; in Central Asian arts : Ghaznavids and Ghurids ) cottage holiday in wales

• Seljuq architecture

• al-Qaeda
• bin Laden

• coinage
• flag history

• history: See Afghanistan, history of caravan holiday in wales

• physical geography

• Hindu Kush Mountains
• Karakoram Range
• Pamirs

• population and demography

• Durrani tribal confederation
• Ghilzay tribe
• Pashtun
• Tajik

• use of Dari language

Maps Flags Map/Still Afghanistan national flag, 1992 001. Flag History Learn about the history of this flag Maps See maps of this country World Atlas Explore this country and the ones that surround it in the World Atlas Statistical Information Additional tables are available in the main article Britannica Search Images Explore images from the main article Photograph The Blue Mosque at Mazr-e Sharf, Afghanistan. camping holiday wales

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Web Search Results from The Web s Best Sites for Afghanistan CIA - The World Factbook - Afghanistan U.S. Department of State: Afghanistan Library of Congress Country Study: Afghanistan U.S. Department of State - Consular Information Sheet - Afghanistan Consular information sheet on this Asian country. Covers entry and exit requirements, medical facilities, road conditions, and customs regulations. accommodation holiday wales

• chromosome Photograph Hereditary information is contained in genes, which are carried on chromosomes.
• chromosome

  Video Each species has a unique set of chromosomes. These chromosomes, together with mitochondrial DNA, holiday last minute wales

• DNA

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• double helix: DNA structure

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21-centimetre radiation electromagnetic radiation of radio wavelength emitted by cold, neutral, interstellar hydrogen atoms. The hydrogen atom is composed of a positively ... 26th of July Movement revolutionary movement led by Fidel Castro that overthrew the regime of Fulgencio Batista in Cuba (1959). Its name commemorates an attack on the ... 3-D motion-picture process that gives a three-dimensional quality to film images. It is based on the fact that humans perceive depth by viewing with both ... 30 Doradus immense ionized-hydrogen region in the Large Magellanic Cloud, a satellite galaxy of the Milky Way system (in which the Earth is located). The nebula ... 38th parallel parallel of latitude that in East Asia roughly demarcates North and South Korea. The line was chosen by U.S. military planners at the Potsdam ... 4-H Club one of an organization of clubs for youth aged 10 to 21 who engage in programs of learning by doing. The clubs are found principally in the United ... 401(k) in the United States, a retirement savings program organized by employers but funded primarily by workers through paycheck deductions. Because ... 51 Pegasi fifth-magnitude star located 50 light-years away from Earth in the constellation Pegasus, the first sunlike star confirmed to possess a planet. 51 ... 61 Cygni first star whose distance from Earth (about 11 light-years) was measured (by Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel in 1838). The star is a visual binary the ... 9to5, National Association of Working Women organization established in 1973 and dedicated to improving the working conditions and ensuring the rights of women office workers in the United ... About Us | Privacy Policy | Terms of Use | Legal Notices | Contact Us | Britannica Store | Become an Affiliate | Syndication | International Publishing | Webmaster | Advertise with Us | Partner with Us | Test Prep | RSS Feed: XML Britannica online encyclopedia article on human genome: all of the approximately three billion base pairs of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) that make up the entire set of chromosomes of the human organism. The human genome includes the coding regions of DNA, which encode all the genes (about 25, 000) of the human organism, as well as the noncoding regions of DNA, which do not encode any genes. By 2003 the DNA sequence of the entire human genome was known. Social impacts of human genome research Print this Table of Contents Linked Articles polymerase chain reaction article 176 Shopping New! Britannica Book of the Year The Ultimate Review of 2007. 2007 Britannica Encyclopedia Set (32-Volume Set) Revised, updated, and still unrivaled. Special Offer! Activate a FREE trial to Britannica Online, your complete (re)search engine for when you need to be right. The human genome, like the genomes of all other living animals, is a collection of long polymers of DNA. These polymers are maintained in duplicate copy in the form of chromosomes in every human cell and encode in their sequence of constituent bases (guanine [G], adenine [A], thymine [T], and cytosine [C]) the details of the molecular and physical characteristics that form the corresponding organism. The sequence of these polymers, their organization and structure, and the chemical modifications they contain not only provide the machinery needed to express the information held within the genome but also provide the genome with the capability to replicate, repair, package, and otherwise maintain itself. In addition, the genome is essential for the survival of the human organism; without it no cell or tissue could live beyond a short period of time. For example, red blood cells (erythrocytes), which live for only about 120 days, and skin cells, which on average live for only about 17 days, must be renewed to maintain the viability of the human body, and it is within the genome that the fundamental information for the renewal of these cells, and many other types of cells, is found. The human genome is not uniform. Excepting identical (monozygous) twins, no two humans on Earth share exactly the same genomic sequence. Further, the human genome is not static. Subtle and sometimes not so subtle changes arise with startling frequency. Some of these changes are neutral or even advantageous; these are passed from parent to child and eventually become commonplace in the population. Other changes may be detrimental, resulting in reduced survival or decreased fertility of those individuals who harbour them; these changes tend to be rare in the population. The genome of modern humans, therefore, is a record of the trials and successes of the generations that have come before. Reflected in the variation of the modern genome is the range of diversity that underlies what are typical traits of the human species. There is also evidence in the human genome of the continuing burden of detrimental variations that sometimes lead to disease. Knowledge of the human genome provides an understanding of the origin of the human species, the relationships between subpopulations of humans, and the health tendencies or disease risks of individual humans. Indeed, in the past 20 years knowledge of the sequence and structure of the human genome has revolutionized many fields of study, including medicine, anthropology, and forensics. With technological advances that enable inexpensive and expanded access to genomic information, the amount of and the potential applications for the information that is extracted from the human genome is extraordinary. Role of the human genome in research Video:Specific segments of DNA are amplified (copied) in a laboratory using polymerase chain reaction Specific segments of DNA are amplified (copied) in a laboratory using polymerase chain reaction Encyclop dia Britannica, Inc. Since the 1980s there has been an explosion in genetic and genomic research. The combination of the discovery of the polymerase chain reaction, improvements in DNA sequencing technologies, advances in bioinformatics (mathematical biological analysis), and increased availability of faster, cheaper computing power has given scientists the ability to discern and interpret vast amounts of genetic information from tiny samples of biological material. Further, methodologies such as fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) and comparative genomic hybridization (CGH) have enabled the detection of the organization and copy number of specific sequences in a given genome. Understanding the origin of the human genome is of particular interest to many researchers since the genome is indicative of the evolution of humans. The public availability of full or almost full genomic sequence databases for humans and a multitude of other species has allowed researchers to compare and contrast genomic information between individuals, populations, and species. From the similarities and differences observed, it is possible to track the origins of the human genome and to see evidence of how the human species has expanded and migrated to occupy the planet. Copy and paste this code into your page 1105 Start your free trial Shop the Britannica Store! More from Britannica on "human genome"... 137 Encyclop dia Britannica articles, from the full 32 volume encyclopedia human genome all of the approximately three billion base pairs of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) that make up the entire set of chromosomes of the human organism. The human genome includes the coding regions of DNA, which encode all the genes (about 25, 000) of the human organism, as well as the noncoding regions of DNA, which do not encode any genes. By 2003 the DNA sequence of the ... Human Genome Project an international collaboration that successfully determined, stored, and rendered publicly available the sequences of almost all the genetic content of the chromosomes of the human organism, otherwise known as the human genome. Human Genome Project:Road Map for Science and Medicine Certain to rank among the all-time landmarks of human technical achievement, the completion of a rough draft of the sequence of the human nuclear genome was announced in June 2000. Its significance and ramifications for science and society are both broad and profound, and, as with any empowering technical advance, the challenge that now faces humanity, both as individuals ... Origins of the human genome from the human genome article Comparisons of specific DNA sequences between humans and their closest living relative, the chimpanzee, reveal 99 percent identity, although the homology drops to 96 percent if insertions and deletions in the organization of those sequences are taken into account. This degree of sequence variation between humans and chimpanzees is only about 10-fold greater than that seen ... football (soccer) -- Britannica Online Encyclopedia Britannica online encyclopedia article on football (soccer): game in which two teams of 11 players, using any part of their bodies except their hands and arms, try to maneuver the ball into the opposing team's goal. Only the goalkeeper is permitted to handle the ball and may do so only within the penalty area surrounding the goal. The team that scores more goals wins. Collapse all Introduction History The early years Professionalism International organization Football around the world Regional traditions Europe North and Central America and the Caribbean South America Africa Asia and Oceania Spectator problems Play of the game Equipment and field of play Fouls Rules Strategy and tactics Additional Reading Print this Table of Contents article 176 Shopping New! Britannica Book of the Year The Ultimate Review of 2007. 2007 Britannica Encyclopedia Set (32-Volume Set) Photograph:Portugal's goalkeeper Ricardo diving unsuccessfully to stop a penalty kick for a goal by France's Portugal's goalkeeper Ricardo diving unsuccessfully to stop a penalty kick for a goal by France's Mark J. Terrill/AP also called association football or soccer game in which two teams of 11 players, using any part of their bodies except their hands and arms, try to maneuver the ball into the opposing team's goal. Only the goalkeeper is permitted to handle the ball and may do so only within the penalty area surrounding the goal. The team that scores more goals wins. Special Offer! Activate a FREE trial to Britannica Online, your complete (re)search engine for when you need to be right. table
Football is the world's most popular ball game in numbers of participants and spectators. Simple in its principal rules and essential equipment, the sport can be played almost anywhere, from official football playing fields (pitches) to gymnasiums, streets, school playgrounds, parks, or beaches. Football's governing body, the F d ration Internationale de Football Association (FIFA), estimated that at the turn of the 21st century there were approximately 250 million football players and over 1.3 billion people interested in football; in 2002 a combined television audience of more than 28 billion watched football's premier tournament, the quadrennial month-long World Cup finals. (For a list of World Cup champions, see table.) For a history of the origins of football sport, see football. History The early years Modern football originated in Britain in the 19th century. Since before medieval times, folk football games had been played in towns and villages according to local customs and with a minimum of rules. Industrialization and urbanization, which reduced the amount of leisure time and space available to the working class, combined with a history of legal prohibitions against particularly violent and destructive forms of folk football to undermine the game's status from the early 19th century onward. However, football was taken up as a winter game between residence houses at public (independent) schools such as Winchester, Charterhouse, and Eton. Each school had its own rules; some allowed limited handling of the ball and others did not. The variance in rules made it difficult for public schoolboys entering university to continue playing except with former schoolmates. As early as 1843 an attempt to standardize and codify the rules of play was made at the University of Cambridge, whose students joined most public schools in 1848 in adopting these Cambridge rules, which were further spread by Cambridge graduates who formed football clubs. In 1863 a series of meetings involving clubs from metropolitan London and surrounding counties produced the printed rules of football, which prohibited the carrying of the ball. Thus the handling game of rugby remained outside the newly formed Football Association monebaggasse